The Media Coverage Of Womens Sport In Australia Media Essay

The Media Coverage Of Womens Sport In Australia Media Essay In past centuries, women were discouraged from participating in any physical activity. Women were seen as having inadequate strength and ability to perform any physical activity instead were expected to be submissive and obedient supporters of their male relatives in this one sex activity. In the contemporary world, women have the rights to participate in different sports, and are acknowledged for their expertise to a degree; however, it is obvious that mens sport is still dominant. It is evident in nearly all societies that men were and still are receiving the majority of the media coverage, and are more recognised and rewarded for their athletic efforts. When images are presented in the media for sport, they are often of muscular men who have achieved excellence in their sport. At a young age, children are influenced to follow the stereotypes created through the years. Young girls are often excluded in school sports and pressured to express themselves as more passive and beautiful beings. As a result, young boys are given higher opportunities in sport and are rewarded for such things as getting dirty in a game of football and tackling players is rugby. As George Orwell said, Sport is war without bullets. Sometimes the language of sport borrows the language of war: we hear about battles, warriors, and some very real-life injuries. By comparing sport to past events such as war, where women were subjected to roles that only supported men as they were seen as weak, feminine and vulnerable, it is clear that the media is encouraging this disempowerment. While girls are increasingly encouraged to participate in sport, they are brought up believing that they are much weaker than boys, and cannot perform at the same level or intensity. Boys that do not fit the male stereotype norm in sports are often portrayed as having feminised gender characteristics. A young boy to be told that he throws like a girl or runs like a girl is considered an insult to normalised masculinity. Sport and masculinity are closely entwined, and as a result femininity has been defined as the other and distanced from sport. Men who enter the industry in traditionally female sports such as gymnastics, dance and diving are stereotyped as performing in a more feminine domain. Women in Australia have become largely involved in a majority of sports and sporting events including the Olympics and the Commonwealth games. Over 40 percent of the total participants in the Athens Olympic Games in 2004 were women, and Australia had one of the largest contributions to this percentage. However, their achievements are less acknowledged as those of men, through receiving less media coverage on TV and in the print media, newspapers and magazines. Womens sport receives a total of 9% of all sports coverage in all Australian television news and current affairs (Department of Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs, 2010). On the other hand, male sport receives over 80%. This unequal coverage has unfortunately created a difficult situation for sportswomen. Women are given less opportunities for professionalism and their media representation commonly portrays them as sexualised and feminine. Unfortunately the limited numbers of women in management within the industry means that changing this disempowerment is a difficult issue for women. The minimal coverage describes women in ways that stress feminine beauty, weakness, passivity and insignificance, deflecting attention from their athleticism. As women are not seen as equally skilful nor worthy of this media coverage, women find it vital to have a strong focus on their appearance to attract the attention of viewers. In a majority of womens sports, the outfits worn by female athletes are minimal and tight, and hair and makeup is flawless which portrays women as glamorous rather than skilful. Womens sport in Australia sees the Opals in basketball wearing tight fitting bodysuits in contrast to the mens knee length oversized shorts and baggy jerseys and women in beach volleyball wearing skimpy bathers while men play in shorts. This image attracts the wrong attention from viewers and even though the number of viewers (usually men) may increase due to this, women are stereotyped and their true abilities are made insignificant. Women are forced to contest each other to find ways to attract coverage to grow their profile and draw much-needed sponsorship dollars. After attracting sponsorship women are pressured by their sponsors to continue to emphasise femininity and look glamorous and beautiful, in order to be successful. Martina Navratilova is one athlete that never followed the stereotype, and relied on her athletic skills in order to be successful. Todays women tennis stars are good athletes who shouldnt have to wear dresses with plunging necklines to grab headlines (Navratilova, M 2000) On the other hand, Tennis superstar Anna Kournikova, has never won a professional tennis tournament, yet is one of the most famous women athletes. She relies on her looks and chooses to promote herself sexually, generally in mens magazine. The courts are as a stage, people love to see attractive players. Yes it is true I always try to be as seductive as possible but I wouldnt be here if I couldnt play tennis (Kournikova, A 2010). Majority of women athletes understand that to be entirely successful, they must have to follow the stereotype and have a strong feminine look to attract viewers. The language used by the media to describe women athletes subjects them to downgrading and sexist language. Women are often described using words such as vulnerable, choking and defeated while male athletes are given empowerment through the language used to describe them. The majority of descriptions of men include words such strong, powerful and gutsy giving them confidence to perform. Commentators and writers in the media push this disempowerment by not only using this language, but by relating women to children and treating them as amateur, unprofessional athletes through using their first names only. Lack of sponsorship hampers the growth and professionalism of womens sports. As the women are unable to obtain substantial sponsorship, they are unable to receive an increase of media coverage and vice versa, therefore the situation is difficult to overcome. The Australian Bodyboarding Pro Tour has been around as a contest for men to express their surfing abilities. For women, this contest has only been available for a few years, with most girls funding their own participation and travel expenses. Out of over 20 women entrants from Australia, only 4 received sponsorship. For women to be able to continue to perform like men, and grow in professionalism, they need to acquire funds like men do. The minimal of coverage is limiting the sponsorship opportunities therefore restricting career and training opportunities. Earning a minimal income from their competitions makes women unable to balance a professional sporting career and a family life. Without sponsorship, or a high winning income, women are forced to also work for a living in order to support their sport, and their family lives. Their busy schedules mean their hours to daily exercise and training are limited, which affects their chances of performing at their best ability. It was once thought that perhaps male athletes were more powerful athletes and therefore deserving of a higher salary. Society believed that the athletes performed at a harder and more exciting standard and for longer periods of time. However, this fact is entirely false and majority of sports are played, and at the same standard, by both men and women. Kira Llewellyn, who surfs for a living, is usually paid between $1000 and $5000 for her competition winnings. She received $20,000 US prize for the Sintra Pro in Portugal which was the largest sum for a woman in this contest. However, this prize money is not acceptable when the male winner received double the amount. Society has minimal understanding and knowledge of the sports due to the restricted coverage. Shelley Maher, president of Womens Lacrosse Australia said Australia is number one in the world in womens lacrosse and yet a very small percentage of the population would know about our sport, let alone that we were champions. Women strive hard to accomplish their goals in their sport. Sadly though, the lack of coverage means they are not credited for those achievements. Its not fair that a tennis player, for example, gets a half page article for breaking into the world top ten and we have the best in the world right here under our noses and nobody outside the sport seems to care, body boarding enthusiast Amanda Dahl says. In fact, the sportswomen from Australia in the 2006 Commonwealth Games won more gold and silver medals than men. Consistent media coverage can benefit a sport by creating positive role models for societys younger generations. These roles models sadly are limited in the world today because of this minimal coverage. Roles models are needed in contemporary Australia to help girls to set goals and accomplish their dreams. Once children reach adolescence, participation in physical activity declines immensely. Having role models in the media, allows the children see that women athletes do exist and therefore these children will begin to see athleticism as an important part in the female identity. The media needs to show a diversity of models, some with a strong athletic ability to ensure, to ensure that the younger generation is able to break through the construction on feminity. In conclusion, women have always been seen as the second sex when it comes to sport. Even though it is evident that coverage has increase over the years, it is clearly still a major disempowerment. Womens sport needs to be given equal coverage as men and needs to focus on their talents rather than the stereotypical images of women such as beautiful and sexualised. This will help create a standard for Australia that both women and men are equal beings, and will be expressed to the world through their media coverages. These factors as above need to be addressed to allow women to succeed in the sporting industry. Being given equal income, and not making women sexualised will create role models for the younger generations and will allow the industry to grow positively. Providing more physical education for girls in school based institutions will encourage young girls to continue exercise and understand it is achievable to perform at an elite level. As Kate Ellis, the Federal Minister for Sport stated, In a country with such a rich sporting culture as Australia, where womens sport is competitive and very successful on the international stage, it is incredibly disappointing that female sport remains so starkly under-represented in the media.

Living constitution

For the past two decades, those in favor of original intent/strict contructionism have been gaining some influence over those who favor a â€Å"living constitution† interpretation of the Constitution. This seems to correlate with the rise of conservative influence over America in the past two decades.   In response to the liberal activism in what was called the Warren Court, conservatives started to voice what was called the conservative critique. Most visibly, this consisted of President Reagan’s attorney general, Edwin Meese was â€Å"unhappy with many of the Supreme Courts liberal decisions of the preceding decades, Meese argued that it was meddling with the affairs of the other federal branches and especially the state governments. (TDD 387).† In response to Meese’s complaint on judicial activism, Supreme Court Justice William Brennan Jr., argued in defense of the judicial activism in what we think is the correct and most favorable interpretation on the Constitution. Brennan puts forth many arguments in favor of what some call a â€Å"Living Constitution† view of the Supreme Courts role in judicial review. Brennan first criticizes what those who favor Original Intent call â€Å"the intention of the Framers† in relation to how judicial review should be carried out. Brennan attacks this doctrine by saying, â€Å"It is arrogant to pretend that from our vantage we can gauge accurately the intent of the Framers on application of principle to specific, contemporary questions†¦the Framers themselves did not agree about the application or meaning of particular constitutional provisions, and hide their differences in cloaks of generality (DEB 325).† This asserts that because the Framers themselves didn’t agree, it would be impossible to judge what the Framers intent would be, as there is no pure consensus on certain constitutional provisions leaving the document incomplete and ambiguous. To view the strict constructionist versus Living Constitution in the right context, one must see who the people are behind these terms. The people who promote a strict constructionist view are almost exclusively economic and social conservatives. This isn’t a coincidence as it is clear to see that many of the major Supreme Court cases of the past century have sided with a economically and socially liberal view. This suggests that conservatives wouldn’t be against judicial activism if the courts ruled in their favor, for instance what if the Supreme Court all of the sudden ruled against legal abortion, banned gun laws, and got rid of welfare? If this happened the very same people who were once strict constructionist and anti-judicial activism would convert to a pro-judicial activist view, and vice versa with liberals. Which leads me to profess that I only prescribe to pro-judicial activism philosophy because they have made â€Å"liberal† decisions in the past. Brennan of course gives other reasons for a Living Constitution other than the fact that the court has made liberal decisions. He argues that a Living Constitution serves as a check against unconstitutional and poor majoritarian rule by the legislature. Brennan reports that an â€Å"Unabashed enshrinement of majority would permit the imposition of a social caste system or wholesale confiscation of property so long as a majority of the authorized legislative body, fairly elected, approved (Brennan 326).† This of course relies on the values and perhaps the consciences on the judges, who don’t have to play the partison politics games thanks to the lifetime term they can serve but still are put in their positions by elected officials. So if a corrupt and authoritarian elected legistlaative majority can get enough judges they approve of to Supreme Court seats, the legislative check disappears,            

Learning Strategies Essay

Learning strategies determine the approach for achieving the learning objectives and are included in the pre-instructional activities, information presentation, learner activities, testing, and follow-through. The strategies are usually tied to the needs and interests of students to enhance learning and are based on many types of learning styles (Ekwensi, Moranski, &Townsend-Sweet, 2006). Due to the Learning Strategies are used to achieve the â€Å"learning objectives† that teachers want their learners to use when they are acquiring a second language, it is important to be conscious about the factor that influence the choice of learning strategies. What are those factors? There is a range of factors that affect strategy choice, including vocabulary learning strategies. According to Ellis (1994: 540 545) there are two broad categories of such factors: INDIVIDUAL LEARNER DIFFERENCES * AGE: Young children tend to use strategies in task specific manner, whereas older ones use generalized and more sophisticated strategies. * LEARNING STRATEGY: According to Oxford (1989), general approach to language learning determines the choice of L2 learning strategies. For example analytic learners prefer strategies such as contrastive analysis and discerning words and phrases, whereas global students use strategies to find meaning: guessing, scanning, predicting, etc. * PERSONALITY TYPE: Ehrman (1990) suggests that each personality type is associated with ‘assets’ and ‘liabilities’ where language learning is concerned. For example, extroverts are assigned to have willingness to take risks (an asset) but with dependency on external stimulation and interaction (a liability). Another finding mentioned by Erhman was that introverts showed greater use of strategies involving searching for and communicating meaning than did extroverts. * MOTIVATION: Some researches show that â€Å"highly motivated learners used more strategies relating to formal practice, functional practice, general study, and conversation/input elicitation than poorly motivated learners† (Ellis 1994:542). The particular reason for studying the language: motivational orientation, especially as related to career field was also important in the choice of strategies. SITUATIONAL AND SOCIAL FACTORS * GENDER: On the basis of Oxford and Nyikos (1989) and Erhman (1990) research, females reported greater overall strategy use than males in many studies. Although sometimes males surpassed females in the use of a particular strategy. * TYPE OF TASK: The specification of the task may help learners in using particular strategies, but cannot predetermine the actual strategies that will be used. * Learning setting: Students (Ellis 1994) have pointed out a number of differences in the usage of learning strategies in a classroom and in more natural setting. Studies of classroom strategies by Chamot (1988) showed that social and affective strategies were used infrequently by adults, excluding ‘questioning for clarification’. However, Wong-Filmore (1976;1979) reported frequent use of social strategies by young learners in a play situation. CONCLUSION Once we as teachers know the factors that influence in our student’s decisions to choose a specific Learning Strategy, it will be easier to guide them in the correct way to be autonomous, students whom can take charge of their own learning (Nation, 2001:222) and gain independence and self-direction. REFERENCES Ehrman, J. K. (1990). Clinical Exercise Physiology . Unided States of America. Ellis, R. (1994). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. New York: Oxford University Press. Oxford, R. L. (1989). Language Learning Motivation:pathways to the new century. Unided States of America: University of Hawai’i Press. Ekwensi, F. , Moranski, J. , & Townsend-Sweet, M. , (2006). E-Learning Concepts and Techniques. Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania’s Department of Instructional Technology. 5. 1 Instructional Strategies for Online Learning. Retrieved February 26th , 2010: http://iit. bloomu. edu/Spring2006_eBook_files/ebook_spring2006. pdf.

The Difference Between Alpha and P-Values

The Difference Between Alpha and P-Values In conducting a test of significance or hypothesis test, there are two numbers that are easy to get confused. These numbers are easily confused because they are both numbers between zero and one, and are both probabilities. One number is called the p-value of the test statistic. The other number of interest is the level of significance or alpha. We will examine these two probabilities and determine the difference between them. Alpha Values The number alpha is the threshold value that we measure p-values against. It tells us how extreme observed results must be in order to reject the null hypothesis of a significance test. The value of alpha is associated with the confidence level of our test. The following lists some levels of confidence with their related values of alpha: For results with a 90 percent level of confidence, the value of alpha is 1 - 0.90 0.10.For results with a 95 percent level of confidence, the value of alpha is 1 - 0.95 0.05.For results with a 99 percent level of confidence, the value of alpha is 1 - 0.99 0.01.And in general, for results with a C percent level of confidence, the value of alpha is 1 - C/100. Although in theory and practice many numbers can be used for alpha, the most commonly used is 0.05. The reason for this is both because consensus shows that this level is appropriate in many cases, and historically, it has been accepted as the standard.  However, there are many situations when a smaller value of alpha should be used. There is not a single value of alpha that always determines statistical significance. The alpha value gives us the probability of a type I error. Type I errors occur when we reject a null hypothesis that is actually true. Thus, in the long run, for a test with a level of significance of 0.05 1/20, a true null hypothesis will be rejected one out of every 20 times. P-Values The other number that is part of a test of significance is a p-value. A p-value is also a probability, but it comes from a different source than alpha. Every test statistic has a corresponding probability or p-value. This value is the probability that the observed statistic occurred by chance alone, assuming that the null hypothesis is true. Since there are a number of different test statistics, there are a number of different ways to find a ​p-value. For some cases, we need to know the probability distribution  of the population.​​ The p-value of the test statistic is a way of saying how extreme that statistic is for our sample data. The smaller the p-value, the more unlikely the observed sample. Difference Between P-Value and Alpha To determine if an observed outcome is statistically significant, we compare the values of alpha and the p-value. There are two possibilities that emerge: The p-value is less than or equal to alpha. In this case, we reject the null hypothesis. When this happens, we say that the result is statistically significant. In other words, we are reasonably sure that there is something besides chance alone that gave us an observed sample.The p-value is greater than alpha. In this case, we fail to reject the null hypothesis. When this happens, we say that the result is not statistically significant. In other words, we are reasonably sure that our observed data can be explained by chance alone. The implication of the above is that the smaller the value of alpha is, the more difficult it is to claim that a result is statistically significant. On the other hand, the larger the value of alpha is the easier is it to claim that a result is statistically significant. Coupled with this, however, is the higher probability that what we observed can be attributed to chance.

Labour and resources Essay Example

Labour and resources Essay Example Labour and resources Essay Labour and resources Essay Developing nations are usually characterized by the need of skilled labour and resources. They also require markets for their goods so as to gain foreign currencies and in turn import whatever goods and services that they need within their boundaries. The reasons why Asian businesses become multinationals are not particular to the region to this effect. Their growth of these businesses has been conventional to what is seen as the established pattern in growth. This is due to the fact that most multinationals are usually set up to sell the goods that result from the expansion in industries. Therefore, the multinationals serve to provide goods and services to the countries in which they are situated. Secondly, these multinationals are main sources of employment for the expatriates from parent countries and the countries in which they do business. The employment might be in the form of skilled and semi-skilled work force being recruited to help the MNEs accomplish their goals. Recently, multinational ventures like the ones that China starts in Africa serve the purpose of acting partly as foreign aid. For instance, a construction company established to build roads in certain parts of Africa is paid for its service but the quarters introduced for employment of natives is restricted to unskilled labour. In effect, the multinational ventures provides services that are meant to develop infrastructure of the native country but in the long run, China benefits most from the venture. Trade, especially bilateral trade between the countries in the region is important in the growth of the countries. The output is mostly restricted to the technological grounds. This keeps the countries constantly importing foodstuff and labour. None the less, the economies in the region depend to a very low degree on exportation. This means that they export little to other regions. The data for this trend is mostly twisted to the Asian regions of the Asia Pacific region. A third of the countries combined GDP depends on exports. This is a direct indication that their economies can be sustained from within as they consume most of their goods. On the other hand, the US and Australia are active in the exportation of the goods and services within their boundaries. This is very pivotal in the growth and change within all their sectors involved in trade. The more they trade with other partners, the more change they are exposed to in terms of volumes of trade, cultures, and trends. In general, trade enhances change in very many aspects to keep the economies on a healthy upward growth trend. With this come so many other benefits (Peltonen Pula, 2009). Japanese investments in the other countries stemmed from the need to obtain raw materials for their manufacturing industries. The manufacturing industry was affected in the areas dealing in minerals. This was due to the demand of minerals for the production of goods. The energy sector was not left behind either. The encouragement by policies issued through government department urged industries to develop in foreign countries so that they could attain the needed minerals for processing and sale. This lessened the hustle of importation of raw materials and created the necessary links between the trading countries and Japan. Mergers and acquisitions also helped in establishing a stable trend in growth as these ensure a hold on most market segments dominated by the acquired establishments. The foray into these regions thus helps strengthen FDI for Japan (Takeuchi, 1990). MNE subsidiaries might not be like parent companies due to the fact that they face a lot of competition from the indigenous companies in the country that they are located. They therefore have a small chance of controlling trade in regions where other established economies have MNEs. For instance, Malaysian MNEs find it hard to exist in the regions which they are established partly due to the lack of sufficient funds as compared to companies from robust economies like Japan and the US. Therefore, the parent company might enjoy market segment manipulation in its country of origin but the ventures to the regional market require more efforts to establish a niche. Cross-border management does not provide a solid method of management as these ventures require a hands-on approach due to the levels of competition (Mulok, 2010). Conclusion To conclude, we can say that the impact of these ventures on the national management and the region as a whole is that it introduces policies that favour the establishment of healthy competition. Management techniques are also improved in the overall outlook. MNEs may or may not introduce monopolies. The monopolies are created in the case where there are few players in that particular industry. The human resource is also enhanced positively as more and more people join the workforce and reduce unemployment. Technology transfer is very important to the region. These establishments ensure that the technological development of these countries is positive and that they acquire knowledge in the different sectors that drive the economy. References Cho, Joong-Wan. (1997). Foreign Direct Investment: Determinants, Trends in Flows and Promotion Policies. Investment Promotion and Enterprise Development Bulletin for Asia and the Pacific. Pp 99-112. Lara, J. P. (2008). Multinational Corporations and the Emerging Network Economy in Asia and the Pacific. Routledge. Print. Wang, C. and Liu, X. (2002). Does Foreign Direct Investment Facilitate Technological Progress? : Evidence from Chinese Industries. Research Policy. Vol. 32, Issue 6, pp 945-953. Saggi, K. (2002). Trade, Foreign Direct Investment and International Trade Transfer: A Survey. World Bank Research Observer, Vol. 17, No. 2, pp 191-235. Lin, Y. J. (2004). The Peoples Republic of Chinas Future Development and Economic Relations with Asia and Latin America. Working Paper Series No. 21. Perkin University.

Legal Case Study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Legal Case Study - Essay Example Generally, death in any manner is a sad thing for the kith and kin of the deceased or dying. Euthanasia or assisted death though relatively new has caused much debate. But Terri’s case of a person who can not decide whether she wants to continue in a persistent vegetative state. She could not decide or communicate her desire. Hence many ethical issues arose. The personal ethics of her parents and husband were in sharp contrast in the later part of Terris’ life. Michael her husband wanted her artificial life support to be withdrawn and the Schindlers, Terri’s parents did not. They argued it would have been against the wishes of Terri who they claimed to be a devout catholic. The parents were wrong in persisting in their demand even after the courts ruled in favour of Michael and appointed him guardian. The judiciary acted reasonably in the matter. Bouma (2005) opines that â€Å"There are adequate checks and balances in the levels of judicial system, and courts have not acted precipitously or hastily.† Yet the Florida Legislature passed a bill authorizing the governor to intervene in Terri’s case. The law was later struck down by the Supreme Court yet the legislature and executive tried unsuccessfully to decide the fate of a person who can not think for herself, against her implied wish as the courts had decided. The society violated its ethics in that special interest groups tried to influence and decide such a highly personal question of a caretaker’s decision about life support to a person in a persistent vegetative state. Lastly, the government violated its duty towards the larger majority of people needing medical aid which would have been provided for instead of spending the amount in costly healthcare of an individual whose legal guardian had expressed his desire to stop her artificial life

The Impeachment of President Andrew Johnson Essay

The Impeachment of President Andrew Johnson - Essay Example Arising from the uncompromised opinions and struggle for power, between the politicians, the impeachment of the president turned out to be a most significant incident in American history. This essay examines the impeachment of President Andrew Johnson and the political conflicts that contributed to it. Andrew Johnson was the 17th president of United States. Andrew Johnson was born to a poor family in Raleigh, North Carolina, in 1808. (â€Å"Andrew Johnson†). After his father’s death, he was apprenticed to a local tailor, at the age of fourteen. He learnt the trade for several years and then fled away, moving west to Greeneville, Tennessee, where he set up a tailoring shop and married Eliza McCardle. (â€Å"Andrew Johnson†). Born to illiterate parents, he had not mastered the basis of reading and grammar, until he met his wife. Even though he was holding very little formal education, he was gifted with great oration skills, which helped him in his political life. He was yet another example in the US history, after Lincoln, emerging from a poor family with no formal education, into becoming the President of a country. Whereas, Lincoln is esteemed for his contributions as a president, Johnson, his successor, turned out to be the most regretful example because of his impeachment. In the aftermath of American Civil War, the country was struggling with reunification of its Southern states through a plan of reconstruction. The formulated plan of reconstruction by the president Abraham Lincoln was intended to be carried out by Andrew Johnson, who became the president after the assassination of Lincoln. It was stated that the policy was lenient towards the defeated south, granting amnesty to the South, excluding the ex-Confederates. (Davidson).